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  KAZI YA NYUMBANI DARASA LA SITA APRILI 2021 + MAJIBU
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  MATUMIZI YA VIAMBISHI
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  MTIHANI WA UTAMILIFU KIDATO CHA NNE (2021) MBEYA
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  MTIHANI WA PAMOJA KIDATO CHA PILI 2021 + (MAJIBU)
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  USANIFU WA VIDAHIZO VYA KAMUSI YA KISWAHILI SANIFU
Posted by: MwlMaeda - 06-29-2021, 10:14 PM - Forum: Kamusi - No Replies

Utangulizi

Makala haya yanakusudia kujadili usanifu wa vidahizo vya Kamusi ya Kiswahili Sanifu (KKS). Ili kuweza kuikabili mada hii ipasavyo, itafaa kwanza kujadili kwa muhtasari suala la usanifishaji. Tunafanya hivyo kwa sababu mbili: Kwanza mada yenyewe ni juu ya usanifu wa vidahizo vya Kamusi ya Kiswahili Sanifu. Pili, kwa kawaid a dhana ya Kamusi imehusishwa na vidahizo sanifu, ijapokuwa kwa fasiri inachukuliwa tu kuwa kitabu chenye orodha ya maneno yaliyopangwa kialfabeti pamoja na kategoria, maana, etimolojia, matamshi, n.k. ya kila neno. Baada ya kuelezea usanifishaji tutachambua suala la usanifu wa vidahizo vya Kamusi ya Kiswahili Sanifu. Matarajio yetu ni kutoa mchango utakaohamasisha juhudi za kukuza na kuendeleza taaluma muhimu ya leksikografia. Hatimaye makala yatahitimishwa kwa kutaja mafanikio yaliyopatikana na matatizo yaliyokabiliwa yakiwapo.
Suala la Usanifishaji
Usanifishaji umejadiliwa na wanaisimu na wanalugha wengi wanaotajika (Allerton. 1982, Crystal. (ed.) 1980, Haas, (ed.) 1982. Kitsao, 1983, 1991, Lyons. 1977, Vachek, 1982. Zgusta 1971 miongoni mwa wengineo). Hivyo basi makala haya hayawajibiki kulishughulikia kwa undani suala hili bali kulirejelea kimapisi tu kwajinsi linavyokuwa daraja la kufikisha kwenye mahusiko hasa. Kusanifisha ni kuanzisha kifani au utaratibu unaonuiwa kusawazisha jambo. Ni kuweka kigezo kinachokubalika na kuzingatiwa kiujumla.
Usanifishaji wa lugha ni maratibu unaopuuza tofauti zote za lu gha zinazotokaua na lahaja na kuhusiana na jinsia. umri, hadhi ya kaz i, n.k. Lugha sanifu ni matokeo ya juhudi ya jamii kulazimisha lahaja moja kuwa lugha sanifu. Usanifishaji wa lugha ni uanzishaji wa aina fulani ya utaratibu jumuishi unaokuwa msingi wa maneno na miundo ambayo wengi wa waongeaji wa lugha husika wangeukubali na kuuchukulia kuwa horomo kwa kiasi kikubwa kutokana na jinsi usivyotia maanani tofauti ndogondogo zinazotokana na lahaja.
Usanifishaji hushughulikia lugha, ukizingatia hasa matamshi. tahajia semantiki na sarufi. Maneno hudhihirika katika tahajia au grafimu inapowakilishwa kimaandishi. Hivyo basi matamshi na tahajia huwa na uhusiano mkuruba kiasi kwamba makala haya yanazungumziu kipamoja.
Kuna lugha nyingi ulimwenguni, ambazo matamshi ya maneno hayaoani na maandishi yake. Hizi ni lugha zenye matamshi hijai, totau ti na hijai matamshi, ambapo hijai za neno hazioani na matamshi kwa upande mmoja. na hijai za neno kukubaliana na rnatamshi kwa upande mwingine. Kiswahili ni miongoni mwa lugha zinazodhihirika kihijai matamshi. Hii ina maana kwamba kwa jumla maneno au leksimu za Kiswahili hutamkwa jinsi zinavyoonekana kimaandishi. Kuna jambo moja tu la kuzingatia – matamshi ya Kiswahili hutiliwa mkazo kwenye silabi moja kabla ya ile ya mwisho. Hivyu basi tuna haki ya kusema kuwa suala la matamshi katika lugha ya Kiswahili si bina. Tatizo hasa ni kwenye hijai kama tutakavyoonyesha baadaye. Semantiki ni tawi kuu la isimu linaloshughulikia uchunguzi wa maana za maneno. Semantiki ina misingi yake katika suala la lugha kuwa imeasisiwa kimaana. Bila lugha kuasisiwa jinsi hiyo, hapangekuwa na mawasiliano miongoni m wa jamii ya waongeaji. Hii ndio sababu iliyofanya Kamati ya Lugha (Kiswahili) ya Afrika Mashariki (1930) kukubaliana matumizi ya maneno au msamiati uliopo na mpya.
Usanifu wa Vidahizo vya KKS
Vidahizo ni yale maneno yanayoingizwa na kuelezwa katika kamusi. Tatizo linalojidhihirisha katika vidahizo vya KKS ni tahajia.
Tahajia na Usanifishaji
Tahajia ni kaida zinazozingatiwa wakati maneno yakiwa katik a umbo la matamshi yanapowakilishwa kimaandishi. Kwa kawaida lug ha yoyote ile ina lahaja mbalimbali zinazotumiwa na wazungumzaji wake. Lugha ya Kiswahili, ina takribani lahaja kumi na sita. Lahaja zote hizi zina tofauti za kimatamshi. Usanifishaji wa Kiswahili ulifanywa il i kurahisisha ufundishaji wake pamoja na kurahisisha mawasiliano miongoni mwa wazungumzaji wake. Kazi hii ilifanywa na Kamati ya Lugha ya Kiswahili ya Afrika Mashariki iliyoundwa 1930. Kabla ya h apo kulikuwa na Kongamano la Elimu (1925), ambalo liliteua lugha ya kutumiwa kama lugha ya mawasiliano katika shule nyingi iwezekanavyo kote Afrika Mashariki.
Madhumuni makuu ya kamati za lugha (Kiswahili) ya Afrika Mashariki yalikuwa kusanifisha Kiswahili na kuendeleza usanifishaji n a ukuzaji wa lugha hii. hasa kwa upande wa msamiati. Kuhusu hasa usanifishaji wa tahajia. kamati ilipendekeza kufanywe makubaliano ya pamoja ya kuwa na tahajia moja kwa maneno yenye tahajia zaidi ya moja.
Maneno ya lahaja
Lahaja ni lugha za eneo au jamii fulani ya wazungumzaji wa lugha moja inayojidhirisha katika maumbo au matamshi ya maneno pamoja na miundo maalumu ya kisarufi. Ugawikaji wa lugha kilahaja ni tukio la kawaida katika lugha yoyote ile yenye idadi kubwa ya wazungumzaji. hasa pakiwa na mipaka ya kijografia au ya kijamii inayotenganisha watu. Kwa mfano neno mchele lina tahajia tofauti kati ka lahaja za Kiswahili kama .ifuatavyo: ‘mtee’ (Kiamu), ‘mtele’ (Kimvita). ‘mchele’ (Kiunguja). Kwa kuwa Kiswahili sanifu kinatokana na lahaja ya Kiunguja tahajia ya kiunguja ndiyo sanifu, na ‘mtee’ na ‘mtele ni tahajia za kutumika katika lahaja zinazohusika.
Usanifishaji katika kiwango cha tahajia huhitaji uteuzi wa tahajia moja itakayokuwa sanifu na nyingine kuwa za kilahaja na ambazo zitatumika katika muktadha wa Jahaja inayohusika. Uteuzi wa vidahizo vya KKS haukuzingatia usanifu wa msamiati, bali tahajia za lahaja mbalimbali za Kiswahili: ‘aghalabu’ na pia aghlabu’, ‘elimu’ na ‘ilimu’ihitilafu’ na ‘hitilafu’, ‘ikitisadi’ na ‘iktisadi’. ‘zaituni’ na ‘zeituni’, ‘ziaka’ na ‘riaka’, n.k. Kwa bahati mbaya. KKS haionekani kuwa na msimamo kuhusu haya kwani haionyeshi tahajia iliyo sanifu na ile isiyo sanifu na mazingira ambapo vibadala vilivyoingizwa hutumika. Kwa mfano, kati ya baasiri na bawasiri, lipi ni sanifu. Iwapo ulikuwapo umuhimu wa kuonyesha kibadala cha tahajia sanifu ni muhimu kuonyesha kibadala hicho hutumiwa na wazungumzaji gani. Vivyo hivyo kwa dada na dade, fadhaika na fazaika, mwida na muda n.k.
Kamusi ya lugha sanifu kama ilivyo KKS haikustahili kuingiza tahajia za kilahaja za maneno. Uingizaji wa vidahizo vikiwa katika tahajia tofuati waelekea kuwa umefanywa kwa lengo la kuikuza KKS iwe kub wa kwa kuingiza vidahizo vingi isivyostahili au kujaribu kuwaridhisha watunzi wa kamusi hii ambao ni waongeaji wa lahaja tofauti waliotaka tahajia za lahaja zao nazo ziingizwe katika KKS. Hali hii ndiyo iliyoifanya KKS iwe na vidahizo pamoja na vibadala vyake kama ifuatavyo ‘asubuhi’ sambamba na ‘asubuhi’, ‘usubuhi’, ‘baleghe’ sambamba na ‘balehe’; ‘chakleti’ sambamba na ‘chakeleti’, ‘chakuleti’ , na ‘chokoleti’, na ‘muale’ sambamba na ‘muali’ sabini. sambamba n a ‘sabiini’; ‘ahsante’, ‘sambamba’ na ‘asante’ n.k. Tofauti hizi za tahajia zinazotokana na tofauti za matamshi ya neno miongoni mwa wazungumzaji wa lugha hazikustahili kuonyeshwa kwani haiwezekani kuridhisha kila mmoja. Watunzi wa KKS walipaswa kusanifisha tahajia moja.
Kwa kuwa tofauti za kilahaja zinatokana na matamshi tu, kusanifu tahajia kusingeathiri mawasiliano kama Allerton (op. cit. 59) anavyosisitiza. Kwanza kabisa, nyingi ya tofauti tuzisikiazo kati ya waongeaji hazina misingi na hutokana tu na hali za kifisiolojia za watu binafsi. Tofauti kama vile thamani ya sauti. kiwango cha unazali, kwa mfano, hutumiwa kutambulisha mwongeaji siyo yale anayosema. Tofauti nyingine huwa kiushi ndogo za kilafudhi kutoka kwenye kaida za kifonemiki ambazo kwake msikilizaji anaweza kujirekebishia. Tofauti za kifonetiki ambazo kweli ni muhimu kwa mtengenezaji wa alfabeti ni zile zinazoathiri idadi ya ubainishi wa kifonemiki ambazo huhusiana na maneno hasa, hivyo basi akatumia kila moja ya fonimu zake. Thamani sahihi ya kifonetiki anayoipa fonimu zake (au, vizuri zaidi, alofoni zake) katika kila mmoja ya miktadha mingi ya kutukia kwake ina umuhimu kidogo tu.
Kushindwa kusanifisha Kiswahili kwa kuzingatia mapendekezo ya usanifishaji yaliyoasisiwa katika miaka ya 1930 ndiko kulikosababisha kuzuka aina ya lugha iliyomfanya mjumbe mmoja wa Idara ya Elimu y a Kenya alalamike kama ifuatavyo katika memoranda yake:
Quote:
Tumesanifisha Kiswahili na kutika utaratibu huo Kiswahili kimekuja kuonekana kuwa lugha mpya. Ambapo bila shaka, sote tuko tayari kukiri kuwa Kiswahili, kama lugha nyingine yoyoce hakina budi kukua na kupanuka katika umbo, ndumo na msamiati, kutokana na athari ya staarabu za jamii hamizi, lakini kwa hakika ukuaji ni lazima utokane na moyo wa Waswahili, siyo kubandikwa kwao kutoka nje. Lakini hivyo hasa ndivyo ambavyo tumejaribu, na bado tumajaribu kuganya, matokeo yakiwa kwamba tumo katika ile hali isokubalika, ya kuchekesha – ya kuwafundisha Waswahili lugha yao wenyewe kupitia vyombo vya vitabu ambavyo vingi si vya Kiswahili katika umbo au yaliyomo, na ambavyo lugha yake inafanana kidogo sana na lugha ongezi. Labda tuna pupa ya kutufanya tusione ukweli hwamba Waswahili wenyewe hawana tu uwezo wu kurekebisha lugha yao kulingana na mahitaji ya kisusa bali pia wanafanya hivyo kwa kasi inayostaajabisha. (Whiteley, 1959:85).
Maoni haya yalizusha hoja kadhaa zilizoyapa umuhimu wa kuyafanya yajadiliwe kwa muda wa miaka ishirini iliyotuatia kwani yanaunga mkono madai kwamba usanifishaji haukueleweka na kutumiwa kwa utaratibu ufaao.
Leksimu Unganishi
Dhana ya ‘leksimu’ hapa inatumiwa kama inavyoeleweka na wanaisimu, ikirejelea kisehemu kidogo bainishi katika utaratibu wa kisemantiki wa lugha fulani. Inachukuliwa kulingana na madhumuni yake ya awali, yaani kupunguza utata wa dhana ya neno, ambayo ilihusiana na viwango vya kiorthografia/kifonolojia, kisarufi na kileksika, na kubuni dhana mwafaka zaidi kwa matumizi katika muktadha wa kujadili msamiati wa lugha. Hivyo basi leksimu inapendelewa kwa kufaa kwake katika kusimamia seti za miundo ya ki.sarun inayodhihirika kama vile kwa uradidi wa ‘piga’ -> ‘pigapiga’, maneno ambatano k.m. ‘mwanadamu’ na ‘ngombedume’, pamoja na viambatani kama vile katika ‘yoyote’. ‘vivihivi’, n.k. Hivi ni kusema kwamba leksimu ni visehemu maneno vinavyotamkwa kama neno mojamoja lakini ambavyo huorodheshwa kama kwamba ni visehemu huru katika kamusi kama Lyons (1977:534-5) anavyofafanua: “Leksimu unganishi ni neno ambalo shina lake huundwa kwa kuunganisha mashina2 mawili au zaidi (na au bila marekebisho ya kimofolojia)” ufafanuzi huu unakuwa muhimu hasa kwa sababu ubainishi unaweza kufanywa katika lugha maalumu. kati ya miundo-maneno na miunganisho za miundo maneno.
Katika Kiswahili, uwakilishi wa miunganisho kama vile ‘pigapiga’ na ‘ng’ombedume’ kama vidahizo katika kamusi si bina. Yanayotuhumu ni madhihiriko kama vile ‘yeyote’, ‘vivihivi’. ‘mmojammoja’, ‘mbalimbali’. ‘kutekote’, n.k. Kigezo kikuu cha kubainishia leksimu katika Kiswahili ni kile cha msisitizo. Kwa jumla, kila leksimu katika Kiswahili huwa na msisitizo mmoja wa kimsingi, mahali pake pakiwa silabi moja kabla ya ile ya mwisho. Msisitizo kwenye silahi ya pili katika ‘barabara’. tofauti na msisitizo wa kawaida katika ‘harabara’ ni muhimu kwa madhumuni tu ya kubainisha maana. Kwa kutia maanani kwamba mifano ya uradidi pamoja na miunganisho kama vile ‘kiamshakinywa’ na ‘kiguu-na-njia’ huchukuliwa kuwa leksimu moja hata kama huunganishwa kwa vistari katika lugha maandishi, na kwa kuona kuwa leksimu katika Kiswahili zina misisitizo wazi kwenye silabi moja kabla ya mwisho, tunapendekeza kwamba miundo kama vile mmojammoja’. ‘yeyote’. ‘vivihivi’. ‘tofautitofauti’, n.k. ambayo msisitizo mmoja ni leksimu moja na yafaa kuainishwa na kuwakilishwa hivyo.
Maneno ya Kigeni
Kwa mujibu wa Crystal (1980) maneno ya kigeni “ni faridi ya kiisimu. (kwa kawaida faridi ya kileksika) ambayo imekuja kutumiwa katika lugha au lahaja. mhali na kule kwenye asili yake”. Maneno mkopo yanaweza knchukuliwa na lugha pokezi bila mofimu zake ngeni kubadilishwa au angalau kurekebishwa kidogo. Hali namna hii inaweza kutolewa mfano wa ‘hwana’ (mkopo katika kamusi ya CHAMBERS TWENTIETH CENTURY DICTIONARY. kutokana na Kiswahili) na propaganda kutokana na Kiingereza katika KKS).
Lakini wakati mwingine, sehemu ya neno, hasa likiwa unganishi, hupisha mofimu. au, hasa katika Kiswahili, fonimu nyenza ya lugha pokezi. Katika Kiswahili, leksimu hukopwa kifonetiki (jinsi zinavyosikika kimatamshi) au kifonemiki,( namna zinavyodhihirika kimaandishi) katika lugha kopeshaji. Hivi ni kusema kwamba ukopaji hufanywa kama leksimu katika lugha kopeshaji hudhihirika kitahajia matamshi au kimatamshi tahajia. Leksimu inayopokewa kifonetiki katika Kiswahili kama lugha kopaji ni kama vile ‘ajenda’, ‘baiskeli’, ‘namba’, ‘edita’. ‘pensheni’. na ‘taksi’, kama zinavyopatikana katika KKS. Kamusi hii haikustahili iingize pia tahajia vibadala kwa leksimu zilezile: ‘agenda’, ‘baiskili’, ‘nambari’, ‘editori’, ‘pencheni’. ‘teksi’. Uingizaji wa vibadala vya tahajia ya maneno ya mkopo unapotosha dhana ya kusanifisha lugha.
‘Agenda’ na ‘pencheni’ kama vibadala vya ‘ajenda’ na ‘pensheni’, hata kama dhana ya usanifishaji ingepuuzwa au hata kama maneno haya yangewakilishwa kifonemiki bila shaka ni kosa kutojua. Ukweli ni kwamba, herufi inayoshikwa na jicho kama g kwa upande wa ‘agenda’ au kusikika sikioni kama ch kwenye ‘pension’ si g wala ch kifonetiki. Kwa mfano neno ‘geography’ hukopwa kama ‘jografia’. siyo kama ‘gografia’.
KKS haiwezi kutetea editori kama kibadala cha edita kwani hii inamaanisha kwamba ni mkopo kutokana na ‘editory’ ambayo haipatikani katika lugha kopeshaji. Ni kweli Kiswahili kimepokea ‘nambari’ kwa matumizi ya kila siku kiasi kwamba neno hili halihisiki kutokubalika. Lakini halina msingi wa kiisimu. Si ‘numbery’ bali ‘number’ katika lugha kopeshaji. Uwakilishi wa moja kwa moja wa ukopaji kifonetiki ungekaribisha maneno mageni kama vile ‘fenomena’, ‘kafeteria’. ‘logo’ ‘parafanelia’. n.k. Hivi ndivyo ambavyo Kiswahili kimekopa maneno kama vile ‘penalti‘, ‘digrii‘, ‘bucha’ na ‘buchari’.
Mbali na utohozi wa moja kwa moja wa faridi za kileksia kama zilivyojadiliwa hapojuu, uwakilishi kifonetiki wa manenomkopo unaweza kufafanuliwa ili kusahilisha matamshi katika lugha pokeaji. Ukopaji wa istilahi za taaluma umekuwa na msingi imara wa kutegemea, uliojengwa na leksimu tangulizi kama vile katika ‘filosofia’, na biolojia hata ijapokuwa maneno haya huenda yalikopwa kimajaribio hapo awali. Matokeo ni kwamba hivi leo tuko huru kuwa na ‘bibliografia’, ‘leksikografia’. ‘orthografia’, n.k. katika kundi moja; ‘methodolojia’, ‘etimolojia’, n.k. katika jingine. Utaratibu unaoonekana kuzingatiwa ni kuwa fonimu /phy/ na /gy/ za lugha kopeshaji zirekebishwe na kukaribishwa kama /fia/ na /jia/ katika lugha pokeaji.
Kuhusiana na /ry/, /cs/, /x/ na /sis/ kama vile kalika ‘history’. ‘physics’, ‘syntax’, na ‘hypothesis’, kama vile katika ‘historia’, ‘fizikia’, ‘sintaksia’, na ‘haipothesia’. Katika muktadha wa ruwaza hizi leksimu ‘kemia’ badala ya ‘kemistria’ (kutokana na ‘chemistry’), na paradigmatiki na semantiki badala ya ‘paradigmatikia’ na ‘semantikia’) (kutoakana na ‘paradigmatics’ na ‘semantics’ zaweza kusemekana kuwa ziliteleza. Huenda waliozisanifu walizichukua hivyo ili kusahilisha matamshi kwa kujaribu kuzipunguza urefu.
Hitimisho
Makala haya yamejadili haja ya kutazama upya usanifu wa vidahizo vya KKS. Katika mjadala huu tumeunyesha upungufu wa KKS katika kikishughulikia Kiswahili sanifu. Kamusi imeshindwa kuorodhesha masaniati sanifu. Kuwa hivyo ipo haja ya wanaoidurusu KKS kuvipembua vidahizo vilivyomo na kuorodhesha vile tu vilivyo katika tahajia inayokubalika. Leksikografia, haiwezi kujitenga na usanifishaji wa lugha, Kwa hivyo inahitaji kutekelezwa kwa uvumilivu, kujitolea na ujuzi japokuwa ni kazi ngumu na yenye kuchosha. Mwanaleksikogratia hana budi kutamhua kuwa kamusi ni rejeo muhimu amhalo watumiaji wa lugha huirejelea ili kupata majibu ya maswali mengi yanayoihusu lugha.
Upungufu mwingine wa KKS ni kukosekana kwa minyambuliko na maneno ya kawaida kama vile ‘nyama’ na ‘kama’ ya ‘masharti’ k.m. ‘kama utakuja, sema’. Kasoro zilizo katika KKS zinahitaji kufanyiwa utafiti. Ili kurekebisha kasoro zilizojitokeza katika KKS inafaa wanaleksikografia kufanya juhudi ya dhati ya kuyabaini matatizo yaliyomo na kuyasahihisha ipasavyo kwa kuzingatia nadharia za isimu na kanuni za utungaji wa kamusi.
Maelezo
1. Neno hili linatumika Kenya kwa maana ya tahajia.
2 Yaonekana Lyons anatumia dhana ya shina kwa maana maalumu kurejelea neno kama linavyoeleweka kikawaida. Ingawaje katika Kiswahili, dhana hii hutumiwa bila utata kurejelea msingi au mzizi wa neno unaoweza kuongezwa viambishi. Kimatumizi ‘yeyote’ hudhihirika kama ye yote, ‘vivihivi’ kama ‘vivi hivi’ ‘mmojamoja’, kama ‘mmoja mmoja’, ‘mbali mbali’, kama ‘mbalimbali’, na ‘kote kote’ kama ‘kotekote’. Kwa jumla miunganisho hii haipatikani katika kamusi (za Kiswahili).
MAREJELEO
Allerton, D.J. 1982 “Orthography and dialect”. katika Haas, W. (ed.)
Antilia, R. 1972. An Introduction to Historical and Comparative Linguistics New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc.
Broomfield, G.W. “The Development of the Swahili Language,” in AFRICA Vol. 3.1930.
Cartford, J.L. 1966. ALinguistic Theory of Translation London: O.U.P.
Cary, E.A. & Jumplet, R.W (eds.) 1950. Quality in Translation. London: Pergamon Press Ltd.. The International Federation of Translators.
Crystal, D (ed.) 1980 A First Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. London: Andre Deutsch Ltd.
Fullas, H. “Problems of Terminology”. in Whiteley, W.H. 1971. Language Use and Social change. London: OUP.
Gower, R.H. “Swahili Borrowings From English” katika Africa Vol. 22, 1952.
Gurr, A.” Literary Translation, Impure But Anticolonial“. in Gorman, T. (ed.) Journal of Language Association of Eastern africa Vol.2. University of Nairobi, Nairobi 1971.
Guenthner, F. & Guenther 1978 M. Meaning and Translation: (eds.) Philosophical and Linguistic Approaches. London: Duckworth & Co. Ltd.
Haas, W. (ed.). 1982 Standard Languages: Spoken and Written. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Hyder, M. “Swahili in a Technical Age”, in Africa Contemporary Monographs, No. 4 East African Publishing House. 1966.
Johnson, F. 1939. A Standard Swahili-English Dictionary. Nairobi O.U.P. Kirkpatrick, E.M. (ed.) 1983. Chambers 20th Century Dictionary Great Britain: W & R Chambers Ltd.
Kitsao, J. Ukubalifu wa msamiati/ Istilahi. Mifano kutoka Kenya. Taasisi ya Uchunguzi wa Kiswahili. Chuo Kikuu.
Kitsao, J. Usainfitshaji wa Istilahi za Kiswahili. DSM: TUKI. 1989
Kitsao, J. Standardisation of Kiswahili: A Review with Special Reference to Othography: makala yaliyowasilishwa katika 22nd Annual Conference on African Linguistics (ACAL) Chuo Kikuu cha Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya. 1991.
Krapf, J.L. 1882. A Dictionary of the Swaluli Language. London.
Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics 2 London, NewYork: Cambridge University Press.
Madan, A.C. 1894. English-Swahili-Dictionary. London.
Madan, A.C. Swahili-English Dictionary. London.
Nida, E.A. 1961. Bible Translation. London: United Bible Society. Towards a Science of translating. Printed in Netherlands. 1975
Exploring Semantic Features. Munchen: Fink.
Pyles, P. & Algeo, J. 1993. The Origin and Development of the English Language. Fourth Edition. Harcourt Bracc Juvanovich College Publishers.
Snoxall, R.A 1958 A Concise English-Swahili Dictionary. Nairobi, DSM:OUP.
Steere, E.1870 A Handbook of the Swahili Language as Spoken at Zanzibar London.
TUKI Lugha ya Kiswahili. UDSM. 1990.
TUKI Usanifishaji wa Istilahi za Kiswahili UDSM. 1990
TUKI Kamusi Sanifu va Biolojia. Fizikia na Kemia. UDSM. 1990
Ullmann, S.1951. Word and their use. London: Muller, Series, Man and Society,
United Bible Sucieties. 1952. The Holy Bible in kiswahili. Union Version.
Vachek, J. English Orthography, in Haas, (ed.) ambayo imerejelewa.
Wajiyewardene, G.E.T. 1959. SWAHILI CONCEPTS OF HEALTH AND DISEASES. Kampala: E.A. Insitute of Social Research. Makerere College.
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Zgusta. L. 1971. MANUAL OF LEXICOGRAPHY Paris: Mouton.

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  MATUMIZI YA KAMUSI
Posted by: MwlMaeda - 06-29-2021, 09:56 PM - Forum: Kamusi - No Replies

MATUMIZI YA KAMUSI

Kamusi ni kitabu cha marejeleo chenye msamiati uliokusanywa kutoka kwa wazungumzaji wa jamii fulani, na kupangwa kwa utaratibu maalumu, kasha kufafanuliwa kwa namna ambayo msomaji huweza kuelewa.
Ufafanuzi wa msamiati unaoingizwa kwenye kamusi ni fasili na maelezo mengine kulingana na lengo la kamusi husika.
Msamiati unaoingizwa katika kamusi waweza kuwekwa katika makundi makuu mawili: (a) maneno yote ya lugha au fani fulani (b) orodha ya maneno yaliyochaguliwa kutoka katika lugha ya kawaida au lugha ya fani fulani na kupewa maelezo mafupi ya maana za maneno hayo.
Mtunga kamusi huteua msamiati fulani anapotunga kamusi na kuacha mwingine. Uteuzi wa maneno yanayoingizwa katika kamusi huongozwa na vigezo vifuatavyo:
(i) Umbo la neno
(ii) Maana ya neno
(iii) Historia ya neno
(iv) Matumizi ya neno
Kwa nini kamusi ilitungwa?
Utungaji wa kamusi ulianza katika jamii zilizojua kusoma na kuandika. Kamusi ilihitajika ili imsaidie mtumiaji kufahamu maana za maneno aliyoyasoma. Maneno haya yalipatikana katika matini mbalimbali kama vile vitabu na magazeti. Kwa sababu hii ni  wazi kuwa, kamusi zilianza kutungwa ili kukidhi haja ya kupata maana ambazo hazikujulikana.
Jamii isiyojua kusoma na kuandika, hususani ile ambayo haikuingiliana na watu wa jamii nyingine yenye utamaduni tofauti haikuhitaji kamusi, hii ni kwa sababu kila mwanajamii alifahamu msamiati wote uliohitajika kwa mawasiliano.
Kwa hali hii ni dhahiri haja ya kamusi ilichochewa na kuongezeka kwa msamiati kutokana na kupanuka kwa matumizi ya lugha. Matumizi ya lugha yalipanuka ili kutosheleza haja ya kueleza na kufafanua dhanna mpya zilizotokana na kukua na kubuniwa kwa maarifa mapya yaliyojidhihirisha katika Nyanja mbalimbali za sayansi na teknolojia.
Muundo wa Kamusi
Kamusi imegawanyika katika sehemu kuu tatu ambazo ni: Utangulizi, matini ya kamusi na Sherehe ya kamusi.

Utangulizi wa kamusi
Hii ni sehemu ya mwanzo ya kamusi ambayo hutangulia matini yenyewe ya kamusi. Utangulizi hujumuisha muhtasari wa sarufi ya lugha yenyewe pamoja na maelezo ya namna ya kuitumia kamusi. Utangulizi huonesha pia vifupisho vilivyotumika ndani ya kamusi na maana zake.

Matini ya kamusi
hii ni sehemu yenye vidahizo vyote vya kamusi husika kuanzia herufi ya alfabeti “A” hadi “Z”. Vidahizo vyote huorodheshwa hapa na kufafanuliwa. Taarifa mbalimbali za kiisimu huingizwa hapa. Taarifa hizo huhusu aina ya neno, maana (fasili) ya neno, vifupisho vya maneno, matumizi ya alama na vituo mbalimbali, matamshi, matumizi ya misemo, nahau, methali, n.k.
  • Kidahizo ni neno lolote linaloingizwa kwenye kamusi na kutolewa fasili yake.
Sherehe ya kamusi
Sehemu hii ya Kamusi huingiza baadhi ya taarifa za ziada zenye msaada kwa mtumiaji wa kamusi. Taarifa zinazoingizwa sehemu hii ni kama vile:
  • Majina ya nchi mbalimbali

  • Vyeo vya kijeshi

  • Vipimo mbalimbali vya urefu, ujazo, ukubwa, n.k.
Mpangilio wa maneno katika kamusi
Maneno yanayoingizwa katika kamusi nyingi hupangwa kwa utaratibu wa alfabeti. Maneno yanayoanza na herufi A, yote huwekwa chini ya herufi A. Vivyo hivyo kwa maneno yanayoanza na herufi b, ch, d hadi z. maneno yanayoanza na herufi fulani nayo hupangwa katika utaratibu wa alfabeti kwa kuzingatia herufi ya pili, ya tatu, nne au tano ya neno kama mfano unavyoonesha hapa chini:
Mfano: jabali, jabiri, jadhibika, jadi.
Maneno yote yanaanza na herufi [j]. Herufi ya pili kwa maneno yote ni [a]. Herufi ya tatu ni . Kwa kuwa  hutangulia [d] katika mpangilio wa alfabeti, maneno yenye  huorodheshwa kwanza kabla yay ale yenye [d]. Kwa vile maneno yenye  ni mawili itabidi tutazame herufi ya nne ya maneno hayo ili kuchagua neno litakaloorodheshwa mwanzo. Neno jabali litaorodheshwa kabla ya jabiri kwa kuwa [a] (herufi ya nne kwenye jabali hutangulia [i] ya jabiri ambayo pia ni herufi ya nne. Kasha tunatazama maneno yenye [d] kama herufi ya tatu. Hapa tunaangalia pia herufi ya nne ili kubaini neno litakaloandikwa mwanzo kati ya jadhibika na jadi. Kwa kuwa [h] hutangulia [i] basi jadhibika litaorodheshwa mwanzo na kufuatiwa na jadi.
Taarifa za Kikamusi
Kamusi za siku hizi huwa na taarifa zaidi ya maana. Miongozi mwa taarifa ambazo kamusi huwa nazo ni:

Kidahizo
Kidahizo ni neno linaloorodheshwa katika kamusi ili litolewe maana zake pamoja na taarifa nyinginezo. Katika kamusi, vidahizo vinaorodheshwa ki- alfabeti na huandikwa katika chapa iliyokolezwa wino.
Mfano
Ardhi nm 1. nchi kavu udongo

dunia
Fuska nm: tabia mbaya, hasa ya uasherati.

Vibadala
Kibadala ni kimoja kati ya maneno au zaidi yanayotofautiana kidogo kimaandishi na kimatamshi lakini yenye maana sawa. Maumbo au matamshi hayo tofauti hutumiwa na watu wa maeneo tofauti au wa lahaja tofauti za Kiswahili. Kwa mfano, neno benki hutumiwa zaidi Tanzania na banki hutumiwa zaidi Kenya. Kama vibadala viwili vitabainika vyote ni sanifu au vina matumizi mapana, maumbo yote mawili yanaingizwa katika kamusi kama vile “alimradi na ilimradi” nm, aminifu – Amini, amwali – amuali, amin – amini, n.k.

Misemo (ms), methali (mt) na nahau (nh)
Taarifa nyingine zinazoingizwa katika kamusi ni misemo, methali na nahau. Taarifa hizi zinawekwa baada ya fasihi au mifano ya matumizi katika chapa ya italiki. Semi hizi hutengwa na taarifa zilizotangulia kwa nukta mkato (Wink na kutanguliwa na alama (ms) kwa misemo, (mt) kwa methali na (nh) kwa nahau.
Mfano
Adimika kt [sie]: patikana kwa uchache au kwa nadra; ghibu; (ms) ume – kama wali wa daku.

Kitomeo
Kitomeo ni neno linaloingizwa katika kamusi kama kidahizo pamoja na taarifa zake zote kama vile kategoria, idadi, sinonimu, n.k.

Michoro
Kamusi huingiza michoro ya vitu mbalimbali. Lengo la michoro hiyo ni kusaidia fasili kuelezea maana ambazo hazieleweki kwa urahisi.

Orodha ya nchi na utaifa
Taarifa nyingine zinazoingizwa katika kamusi ni orodha ya nchi na utaifa. Lengo la orodha hiyo ni kuwasaidia wazungumzaji na watumiaji wa lugha kuwa na namna moja ya kutaja majina ya nchi na utaifa. Orodha hii inawekwa mwishoni kabisa mwa kamusi.

Tahajia ya neno
Tahajia ni uwasilishaji wa sauti kwa herufi katika maandishi kufuatana na mwendelezo wa maneno uliokubaliwa. Maneno katika kamusi yanaandikwa kufuatana na tahajia sanifu. Kwa yale maneno yenye tahajia zaidi ya moja, basi lahaja zote zinaoneshwa.

Matamshi ya Maneno
Kamusi huonesha namna ya kutamka maneno yanayoingizwa katika kamusi ili kumwelekeza mtumiaji wa kamusi jinsi yanavyotamkwa. Matamshi ya maneno huoneshwa kwa kutumia alama za kifonolojia ambazo huonesha herufi zinazounda neno.
Maneno ya Kiswahili yanaandikwa kama yanavyotamkwa kwa hiyo hayahitaji alama za kuonesha namna ya kuyatamka. Isitoshe haja ya kuwa na maelekezo ya matamshi ya maneno ni muhimu kwa wanafunzi wa Kiswahili, hususan wageni ambao hawakuzoea sauti fulani ambazo hazipo katika lugha zao. Kwa mfano, Kiingereza hakina sauti inayowakilishwa na umbo /ng/ kama inavyodhihirika katika neno /ngoma/ japokuwa wanalo umbo kama hilo ambalo hutamkwa kama /ng’/ ya neno /ng’ombe/ na /th/ za Kiswahili huwakilishwa na umbo moja tu katika Kiingereza.
Kwa hali hii ni dhahiri kuwa, maelezo ya namna ya kutamka maneno ya Kiswahili siyo muhimu kwa kamusi iliyolenga wenyeji wa Kiswahili kama ilivyo Kamusi ya Kiswahili Sanifu. Kamusi inayotungwa mahususi kwa wageni haina budi kuonesha namna ya kutamka kwa usahihi yale maneno ambayo ni magumu kutamka. Maneno yasiyokuwa na shida kutamka ambayo kwa hakika ni mengi katika Kiswahili yasiyooneshwa, kwani itakuwa kujaza nafasi bure.

Sarufi ya lugha
Sarufi ya lugha kama inavyojitokeza katika kila neno kama vile maumbo ya wingi wa nomino, vinyambuo vya maneno kama vile lima, limia, limika, limisha, limwa, n.k. ambayo hutokana na kitenzi “Lima”

Maana za maneno
Kamusi huonesha maana za maneno. Maana hizi zinaelezwa kwa kutoa fasili (maelezo) pamoja na maneno mengine yenye maana sawa au zinazokaribiana, yaani sinonimu. Kimpangilio, fasili hutangulia na sinonimu hufuata.
Kidahizo chenye maana zaidi ya moja huoneshwa maana zake kuu kwa kutumia tarakimu 1,2,3, n.k. Pale ambapo maana kuu ina maana nyingine ndogondogo, maana hizo zinaoneshwa kwa kuwekewa alama (a), (b), ©, (d), n.k. au tarakimu.
Mfano
Fungo1 nm (ma) (a) muda wa kujinyima kwa hiyari chakula, maji na vinginevyo; muda wa kufunga. (b) namna ya kufunga © dhamana
Fungo2  nm dawa inayotengenezwa kwa mizizi ya ndago ambayo husaidia meno ya mtoto kuota yakiwa imara.
Fungo3 nm mnyama kama paka mwitu na mdogo kuliko ngawa.

Etimolojia ya neno
Kamusi huonesha etimolojia ya neno, yaani asili ya neno, mfano neno fulani asili yake ni kutoka nchi gani au lahaja gani.

Matumizi ya maneno
Kamusi huonesha matumizi mbalimbali ya maneno. Kwa kawaida, maneno mengi ya lugha hutumiwa katika nyanja mbalimbali. Hata hivyo, kuna baadhi ya maneno hutumika zaidi katika maeneo fulani maalumu, kama vile dini, fizikia, baiyolojia, ushairi au sarufi. Maneno kama haya hupewa alama maalumu kuonesha maneno yanamotumika zaidi.
Mfano:
Kwaresima nm (kd) siku arubaini za mfungo wa wakristo kabla ya sikukuu ya pasaka.
Yambiwa nm (sarufi) kipashio cha sentensi kinachodokeza mtendewa.
AINA ZA KAMUSI
Kwa kutumia kigezo cha dhima au lengo la kamusi kuna aina zifuatazo za kamusi:

Kamusi wahidiya
Hii ni kamusi inayoandikwa katika lugha moja tu, na inalengwa kwa wazungumzaji wazawa wa lugha hiyo. Wakati mwingine huwafaa wanaojifunza lugha hiyo kama lugha ya pili au ya kigeni. Jambo la kuzingatia hapa ni kwamba, vidahizo vya kamusi wahidiya na maelezo ya maana ya vidahizo hivyo huwa katika lugha moja. Mfano wa kamusi wahidiya ni Kamusi ya Kiswahili Sanifu ya TUKI iliyochapishwa mwaka 1981 na ile ya Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary.

Kamusi thaniya
Hii ni kamusi iliyoandikwa kwa lugha mbili. Vidahizo huandikwa katika lugha moja (lugha chanzi) na maelezo ya maana ambayo aghalabu huwa neno moja, yaani visawe, huandikwa katika lugha ingine (lugha lengwa). Lengo la kamusi thaniya ni kumsaidia mtu anayefahamu lugha moja kati ya zilizotumiwa kujifunza lugha ingine, kuelewa matini anazosoma ambazo zimeandikwa katika lugha ya vidahizo vya kamusi na kumsaidia kujieleza vizuri hasa anapoandika katika lugha lengwa. Mifano ya kamusi thaniya ni kamusi za TUKI za mwaka 1996: Englisha – Swahili Dictionary,  Kamusi ya Kiswahili – Kiingereza, Kamusi Sanifu ya Isimu na Lugha (1990) na Kamusi Sanifu ya Biolojia, Fizikia na Kemia

Kamusi mahuluti
Hii ni kamusi yenye lugha zaidi ya mbili. Ni kamusi iliyoandikwa kwa lugha nyingi. Vidahizo vya kamusi mahuluti hupatiwa visawe katika lugha mbili au zaidi.
Mfano
Kiswahili             Kiingereza           Kijerumani
nyumba nm             house                    haus
  mtoto nm                child                    kind
 kitabu nm                 book                    buch
  tembea kt                  walk                   laufen

Kamusi za kitaaluma
Hizi ni kamusi zinazoandikwa na wasomi ili zitumike katika uwanja fulani wa kitaaluma kama vile fizikia, kemia, biolojia, isimu, fasihi, n.k. Kamusi za aina hii huwa na maneno ya kitaaluma. Mfano wa kamusi za kitaaluma ni Kamusi Awali ya Sayansi na Teknolojia (1995), Kamusi ya Isimu na Lugha (1996), Kamusi ya Biolojia, Fizikia na Kemia (1996) Dictionary of Archaeology (1972).

Kamusi za semi
Kamusi za aina hii huwa na mkusanyiko wa semi kama vile nahau, methali, misemo, n.k. Kamusi hizi hueleza maana za semi mbalimbali na matumizi yake. Mfano wa kamusi za semi ni Kamusi ya Misemo na Nahau (2000) na Kamusi ya Methali (2001)

Kamusi za watoto
Hizi ni kamusi wanazotungiwa watoto, hasa katika madarasa ya chini. Sifa kubwa ya kamusi hizi ni wepesi wa maelezo na matumizi mengi ya picha. Mfano wa kamusi za watoto ni Kamusi ya Kwanza ya Kiswahili – Kiingereza

Kamusi za visawe
Hizi ni kamusi zenye kueleza maana za maneno kwa kutumia visawe vyake. Katika kamusi ya aina hii, neno kama vile ghilba huelezwa kwa visawe vyake kama vile uongo, ulaghai, hadaa, n.k.
Dhima ya kamusi
Kamusi ina umuhimu kwa mtumiaji yeyote wa lugha kwa sababu zifuatazo:
(a)  Kamusi huonesha tahajia (spellings) sahihi za maneno
(b) Kamusi hueleza maana (fasili) mbalimbali za maneno
©  Kamusi huonesha matamshi sahihi ya maneno
(d) Kamusi hubainisha aina (kategoria) ya neno
(e)  Kamusi huonesha misemo, semi, misimu na methali mbalimbali
(f)   Kamusi huonesha asili ya neno
(g)  Kamusi huonesha alama na vifupisho mbalimbali vya lugha
(h) Kamusi huongeza maarifa zaidi kuhusu lugha ya mzungumzaji
(i)    Kamusi husaidia kujifunza lugha za kigeni.

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