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NADHARIA ZA KIJAMII

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NADHARIA ZA KIJAMII
#1
2.0     Utangulizi
Sehemu hii inashughulika na kueleza nadharia za kijamii ambazo hutumika katika kuelewa uhusiano mbalimbali katika jamii. Nadharia hizi zinasaidia kuelewa wazi swala la lugha na jamii.
2.1  Madhumuni
Mpaka mwisho wa somo hili utaweza kutimiza yafuatayo:
1.  Kueleza nadharia za kijamii.
2.  Kuonesha jinsi  nadharia hizo zinavyoingiliana na swala la lugha.
2.2  Nadharia za Kiisimu
Ili  kuzingatia sehemu  ya  kijamii iliyo  katika taaluma  ya isimujamii, ni muhimu kuelewa  mitazamo mbalimbali  inayotumiwa  kuchunguza jamii  za  wanadamu.
Katika   sosholojia kunazo nadharia tatu kuu zinazoielezea jamii.   Kuelewa lugha katika jamii kunahitaji pia kuzielewa nadharia hizi  za kijamii.  Katika     mada hii tutazijadili nadharia mbili  za mwnzo kati ya hizi tatu.  Nadharia hizo tatu ni:
(a)     Uamilifu (functionalism)
(b)     Umaksi (marxism)
©      Muingiliano (interaction)
2.2.1  Uamilifu
Hii ni nadharia iliyoibuka kati ya miaka ya arobaini na sitini (1940 s and 1960 s). Inaeleza  kuwa jamii  inaweza  kuchukuliwa kama  mfumo  ulio na  sehemu  zenye uamilifu.   Ili
kuelewa sehemu  yo  yote
ya  jamii (kama  familia au shule), lazima
sehemu hiyo ichunguzwe
kwa kuangalia uhusiano wake na jamii nzima.
Kama
vile   mwanabiolojia   anavyochunguza   mchango
wa   moyo   katika
kuendeleza maisha  ya
binadamu  ndivyo  sehemu
ya  jamii  inavyochunguzwa  kulingana
na mchango wake katika
kuendeleza mfumo wa kijamii.
Mfumo  wa
kijamii unayo  mahitaji fulani
ambayo  yanahitaji kutekelezwa ili jamii
idumu.  Mahitaji   haya  ni
pamoja  na  chakula,
mavazi  na  malazi.       Uamilifu  wa
sehemu yo yote ya jamii
ni ule mchango wake katika kuendeleza na kuimarisha
jamii   hiyo
kwa   jumla.  Hii
ina   maana   kwamba
kuna   kiwango   fulani
cha
muingiliano kati ya
sehemu zote ambazo huunda jamii.
Wanauamilifu  wanadai
kuwa  utaratibu  na
uimarikaji  ambavyo  huwa
ni  vitu
muhimu vya kuendeleza
jamii hutokana na kuwepo kwa amali (za pamoja) sawa,
yaani  makubaliano
kuhusu  mambo  fulani
katika  jamii.    Kutokana
na  mtazamo
huu   wanajamii
hushughulikia   mifumo   midogo
ya   kijamii   na
amali   sawa
zinazowaunganisha wanajamii.
Dhana  zinazosisitizwa  katika
nadharia  hii  ya
elimujamii  na  ambazo
ni  muhimu
kwa  mwanaisimu
jamii ni  pamoja na: utamaduni,
ujamiishaji (socialisation),
kaida, amali, hadhi na
majukumu/dhama.
(i) UTAMADUNI
Utmduni hurejelea jinsi
jamii inavyoishi; yaani mkusanyiko wa mawazo na tabia
wanazojifunza  na
kupokeza  kutoka  kizazi
kimoja  hadi  kingine.  Katika  hali
hii
utamaduni  ni
mpangilio  wa  jinsi
watu  wanavyoishi.  Utamaduni  unafafanua
mambo yanayokubalika na
mfumo wa tabia katika jamii fulani.
(ii) UJAMIISHAJI
Dhana hii inarejelea
njia ambazo kwazo watu hujifunza utamaduni wa jamii zao.
Ujamiishaji  wa
kimsingi   au   awali
hutokea  utotoni,  aghalabu
katika  familia.
Mahirimu au marika
(peer group) ni kukundi muhimu cha kuendeleza ujamiishaji.
Marika humsaidia
kumkuza mtu kijamii na kiisimu.
(iii) KAIDA NA AMALI
(a) KAIDA
Kaida ni mwongozo
maalumu wa jinsi ya kutenda mambo na kaida hueleza tabia
zinazokubalika na zile
zinazofaa katika miktadha maalumu.
Mifano ya kaida hizi
inaonekana   katika
mavazi   ya   shuleni,
ya  vijana,ya  nyumbani,
au  ya  dhifa
mbalimbali.  Katika hali ya ujamiishaji, kaida hufunzwa
kwa kutuza (kumpa mtoto
peremende, maneno ya kusifia)
au kuadhibu.   Baadhi ya kaida hufanywa
kuwa
sheria  za
kutumikia  umma  wote.  Kwa  mfano,
kukataza  kuoga  hadharani
au
wanawake kuhitajika
kufunika nyuso zao hadharani.
(b) AMALI
Amali  hutoa
miongozo  ya  kijumla
ya  mambo  ambayo
yanachukuliwa  kuwa
mazuri  na
yenye  thamani.    Kwa
mfano,  katika  jamii
nyingi  za  kisasa,
watu
huthamini  maisha
ya  binadamu  sana.
Baadhi  ya  amali
zinazopendekezwa  ni
umoja,uaminifu, upendo,
n.k..
Wanauamilifu   wanaamini
kuwa   ikiwa   kaida   hazitakubaliwa   na
kushirikishwa
miongoni  mwa
wanajamii,  jamii  haziwezi
kushirikiana  na  kufanya
kazi  pamoja.
Hivyo basi jamii
inahitaji kaida na amali za pamoja.
Jambo hili limekuwa msingi
wa tafiti nyingi za
isimujamii.
(iv) HADHI NA MAJUKUMU
Hadhi  hurejelea cheo cha mtu katika jamii  (si lazima iwe kazi).  Hadhi kama hizi
huenda  zimerithiwa,
yaani  mtu  anapozaliwa
anajipata  ana  hadhi
fulani  kwa
mfano malkia au mfalme.
Anapoendelea kukua anajipata kuwa yeye ni mke au
mume  .  Hadhi  pia
huenda  ikapatikana  kutokana
na  juhudi  za kibinafsi za mtu,
kwa mfano, kujiendeleza
kitaaluma na kuwa mwalimu, daktari, mwanamichezo,
n.k.
Kila  hadhi
katika  jamii  huwa
na  idadi  fulani
ya  kaida  ambazo
zinaeleza namna
mtu aliye katika
hadhi  hiyo anatakiwa kuendesha maisha
yake.  Kikundi  hiki cha
kaida  huitwa
dhima  au  majukumu.
Majukumu        ya  kijamii
ndiyo  huongoza
tabia.   Kufikia mwisho mwa siku, mtu huwa
ametekeleza majukumu mbalimbali:
mwalimu (kazini), mama
au mke (nyumbani), mteja (benki), manju (kilabu cha
starehe), n.k.   Kila jukumu huhitaji tabia fulani
zizingatiwe, zikiwa ni pamoja na
tabia za kiisimu.  Kila jukumu la kijamii humfanya mtu achague
elementi fulani za
kiisimu.       Huku
akitekeleza  majukumu  yake
atatumia  lugha  kwa
njia  tofauti
tofauti.
Zoezi
Je, kwa maoni yako,
unafikiri nadharia  ya uamilifu  inajitokeza vipi katika jamii
zetu na lugha
tunazozitumia?
2.2.2  UMAKSI
Umaksi  unahusiana
na  nadharia  kadhaa.
Tunapoongea  kuhusu  uhakiki
wa  ki- maksi, huwa tunairejelea
mikabala mbalimbali ambayo misingi yake
ni mawazo yanayohusishwa na Karl Marx na Friedrich Engels.
Nadharia hii imepitia
mabadiliko makubwa tangu kuweko kwa wataalamu hawa. Umaksi  unahusu
nyanja  mbalimbali kama  uchumi,
historia, jamii na mapinduzi. Umaksi una sifa ya kijumla inayojitokeza
katika mwelekeo wake wa kuligusia kila eneo, na kuwa na la kusema kuhusu
takriban kila kitu ikiwemo lugha.
Mawazo  ya
Karl  Marx  kuhusu
historia na  miundo  ya
kijamii yana nafasi kubwa katika
nadharia  hii.        Umaksi
ni  falsafa  yakinifu
hasa  kwa  kuwa
pana  msisitizo mkubwa kwenye
msingi wa hali za kiyakinifu za maisha kama mazingira ya kuishi kuliko mawazo
katika maisha ya binadamu. Umaksi hauegemezi mfumo wake wa kifalsafa   kwenye
dhana   dhahania   kama
urembo,   ukweli   au
ndoto   bali unayaegemeza kwenye
uhalisi unaoonekana.
Hebu
basi tuchunguze mawazo ya kimsingi ya nadharia hii:
(1) Historia ya maisha
ya binadamu inaweza kuelezeka katika misingi yakinifu ya  kiuchumi.
Misingi  hii
itachunguza  njia  za
uzalishaji  mali  pamoja
na miundo   ya   kiuchumi
inayoathiri   sio   uzalishaji
mali   hiyo   tu
bali   na usambazaji wake.   Swala hili la uzalishaji mali na usambazaji
wa mali hiyo linaunda kile ambacho hujulikana kama msingi au muundo msingi
(base = infrastructure).   Kwenye msingi
huo ndiko kunakoegemezwa muundo wa juu au kikorombwezo (superstructure).   Muundo
wa juu ndio unaohusisha maadili, itikadi, dini, utamaduni ,n.k.
Sifa  za
muundo  juu  zinaathiriwa
kwa  kiasi  kikubwa
na  muundo  msingi. Hata hivyo mabadiliko yanayotokea
katika muundo wa juu kama mageuzi katika muundo wa kiutawala huweza kuathiri
muundo msingi.
(2) Daima  historia ya binadamu itadhihirisha au kuakisi
harakati zinazoendelea  katika  matabaka
ya  kiuchumi-jamii.   Karl
Maksi  aliwahi kusema kuwa
historia ya maisha ya binadamu ni ya harakati za kitabaka. Je, harakati hizi
zinasababishwa na nini?   Tunajua kuwa
kitu cha msingi katika maisha ya binadamu ni kula na kunywa, kupata malazi na
mavazi na mambo mengine.
Tendo  la
kwanza  la  kihistoria
kwa  hiyo,  ni
kutafuta  njia  ya
kuyakidhi mahitaji  haya  ya
kimsingi. Ili  kufanikiwa  katika
lengo  hilo,  binadamu hulazimika  kujiunga
pamoja  au  kuunda
umoja  ili  kuimarisha
ubora  na wepesi wa kuizalisha
mali ya kukidhi mahitaji hayo.  Muungano
huo huwa na ugawaji wa majukumu au kazi ambayo ndiyo msingi wa kuundwa kwa
matabaka  katika  jamii. Hatua
ya  juu  ya  mwendeleo  huu
ni  ukuzaji  wa mfumo wa ubepari.   Katika mfumo huu, mali inamilikiwa na idadi
ndogo  ya watu.   Watu hao wanaipata mali yao kutokana na
unyonyaji wa umma na hasa wafanya kazi.
Kumbuka
Zingatia maoni haya
katika muktadha wa lugha.  Kwa mfano
lugha- wenyeji na lugha za kigeni zilizopo hapa nchini.
Kadiri   mfumo
wa   ubepari   unavyoendelea   ndivyo
ubora   wa   uzalishaji
maji unavyoongezeka  na  tofauti
kati  ya  matabaka
kuimarika  kwa  kuwa
kuna  watu wanaofaidika  kwa
njia  zisizo  za
haki.    Kufaidika  huko
kwa  njia  zisizo
za  haki, pamoja   na
mbegu   za   kujiangamiza   zilizomo
kwenye   mfumo   wa
ubepari vinachangia
kuuangusho   mfumo   wenyewe.      Marx   anaamini
kuwa   haya yanatokana na mfanyiko
wa kiasilia wa kihistoria.  Mfanyiko huo
ni wa kipembuzi (dialectics).      Kwa  mujibu
wa  mawazo  haya,
historia  huendelea  kutokana
na mfululizosafu  wa mkinzano wa
mawazo.   Matokeo ya mkinzano huo ni
kuzuka kwa  hatua  nyingine
mpya  ya  kihistoria. Huu  ndio
msingi  wa  kile
kinachoitwa upembuzi wa kiyakinifu
(dialectical materialism).
(3) Matamanio na
matakwa yaliyopo katika jamii na hasa tabaka lenye nguvu yanaakisiwa  katika
itikadi  iliyopo  katika
jamii,  jinsi  na
miundo  ya  mawazo ambayo aghalabu huwa imeshika kwa
nguvu na huwapo kila mahala kiasi cha kuwa huenda wanajamii wasiitambue kwa
haraka.
(4) Njia ya kusaidia na
labda hata kuharakisha kuangamizwa kwa mfumo wa kibepari ni kudadisi, kukosoa,
kushutumu, kulaumu na kufichua batili iliyopo katika itikadi ya kibwanyenye
inayooimarisha ubepari.
Dhana za kimsingi
zimeibuka katika nadharia hii: ukengeushi; ubidhaaishaji na itikadi.
(i) Ukengeushi
(alienation):  Ugawaji wa kazi unaishia
kusababisha utengano fulani   kati   ya
wanaohusika   au   binadamu. Hii   ni
hatua   ya   kimsingi
ya ukengeushi .  Mfumo  wa
kibepari  unapoendelea  kuboreka
unasababisha  hali ambapo uhusiano
uliopo kati ya mfanya-kazi na tokeo la nguvu zake ni wa kitu kigeni (alien
object).   Watu wanaishia kukengeushwa na
jamii yao kutokana na mfumo wa kiainisho (specialization) unaosisitizwa na
kukuzwa na ubepari.
(ii)
Ubidhaaishaji:   Maksi anaitumia dhana ya
bidhaa kukieleza au kukirejelea kitu kinachozalishwa sio kwa nia ya kutumiwa bali
kubadilishwa katika mfumo wa kibepari
wa  soko. Bidhaa  hizo  hazitathaminiwi  kutokana
na  kazi  yake
bali  ni kutokana na bei
zinazoweza kuvuta.   Yaani msingi wa
kuzitathmini sio thamani kimatumizi bali ni thamani kimabadilishano.   Katika msingi huu, bidhaa zinaishia kuhusisha  nguvu
au  kanuni  fulani
fiche  ambazo huwavuta  watu na kuwafanya wawe na mvuto mkubwa wa
kukimiliki kitu fulani ambacho kinawasisimua.
Huu ndio msingi wa  kuabudu
bidhaa  (fetishism of commodities).
Hii  ni
sifa  kuu  katika
mfumo  wa kibepari  na ni  msingi  wa uchumi
wa  kibidhaa ambapo  watu
husukumwa  na  kani
za kununua  na  kumiliki
vitu  ambavyo labda hawavihitaji
au wanavikinai haraka na kutamani vingine.
Sifa hii ya ubidhaaishaji inaishia kuwahusu binadamu ambao hawathaminiwi
kama binadamu ila kutokana na uwezo wao wa kuzalisha mali.
(iii) Itikadi: Ni dhana
telezi, lakini kimsingi ni uwasilishi wa pamoja wa mawazo, fikira na tajriba hasa  ikiwa vitalinganuliwa na uhalisia wa
kiyakinifu vinakoegemezwa.
Dhana hii
inaweza kufafanuliwa katika
muktadha  wa lugha pale  ambapo
watu  wanaamini  kuwa
kuzungumza  lugha  ya
mama  ni  dalili
ya ushamba au kinyume chake kwamba kuzungumza lugha ya Kiingereza ni
dalili ya kuwa mtu wa tabaka la juu.
Zoezi
Kwa kuzingatia hali ya
lugha nchini Kenya, ni kwa njia gani nadharia ya Umaksi inaeleza hali hii
(zingatia mvutano kati ya lugha ya Kiingereza na lugha nyinginezo za Kiafrika).
Swali
Huku ukitumia nadharia
moja ya Elimujamii, onyesha namna lugha inavyoingiliana na jamii
2.4 HITIMISHO
Katika  somo
hili  tumejadili  nadharia mbili za kijamii ambazo zitatusaidia
kuelewa jamii.  Nadharia     hizi zitachangia katika kuelewa swala la
lugha katika jamii.
Marejeleo
Teule
Eagleton, T. (1983)
Literary Theory: An Introduction.
Oxford: Blackwell.
Mesthrie,   R.
et   al   (2001)
Introducing Sociolinguistics,
Edinberg,Edinberg
Universtity Press.
Wamitila, K.W. (2002)
Uhakiki wa fasihi: Misingi na Vipengele vyake.
Nairobi. Phoenix Publishers Ltd.
Mwl Maeda
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#2
Nadharia hulutishi / HYBRIDITY THEORY
Iliasisiwa na Wanazuoni wa Kiafrika wenye mtazamo kuwa hata wageni wamechangia sana katika kukuza taaluma ya FS ya Kiafrika. Miongoni mwa waasisi na wafuasi hawa ni pamoja na M.M.Mulokozi, Johson na Ngungi wa Thiong Katika nadharia zote zilizotangulia, wakiwemo wana nadharia za Kitaifa kulikuwa na changamoto mbalimbali. Hata hivyo, changamoto hizo zilitofautiana kutoka kundi moja la wananadharia hadi lingine. Kwa kuwa changamoto za nadharia nyingine zilikwisha jadiliwa, hapa tutajadili na kugusia tu zinazohusiana na nadharia za kitaifa
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