MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
MyBB Internal: One or more warnings occurred. Please contact your administrator for assistance.
ODC : MUHADHARA WA KUMI : Kategoria za Kisintaksia na Ushahidi wa Kuwepo Kwazo

Thread Rating:
  • 0 Vote(s) - 0 Average
  • 1
  • 2
  • 3
  • 4
  • 5
ODC : MUHADHARA WA KUMI : Kategoria za Kisintaksia na Ushahidi wa Kuwepo Kwazo
#1
Muhadhara 10: 
Muhadhara  wa Kumi
 Kategoria za Kisintaksia na Ushahidi wa Kuwepo Kwazo
10.1 Utangulizi
Katika mhadhara uliopita tulipokuwa tunafasili dhana ya sintaksia tulidokeza kuwa sintaksia huchunguza jinsi maneno yanavyopangwa katika tungo. Jambo hili linatuambia kuwa katika lugha kuna maneno. Maneno hayo katika kila lugha hayajakaa kivoloya bali huwa yanahusiana kiasi cha kuweza kuwekwa katika makundi madogo. Akishadidia hoja hii, O’Grady, (1996: 182) anaeleza kuwa Ukweli wa msingi kuhusu maneno katika lugha zote za binadamu ni kwamba yanaweza kuwekwa katika makundi madogo zaidi yajulikanayo kama kategoria za kisintaksia. Kauli hii ya O’Grady inatuingiza katika udadisi wa kutaka kujua maana ya kategoria. Hivyo, tunajiuliza, “Kategoria ni nini?” Kusudi la muhadhara huu ni kujaribu kufasili dhana ya kategoria na kuangalia kama kweli kategoria zipo au la.
Madhumuni ya Muhadhara
Baada ya kusoma muhadhara huu unatarajiwa kuweza:
(i)     Kufafanua dhana ya kategoria
(ii)    Kutaja kategoria za kisintaksia
(iii)  Kueleza ushahidi wa kuwepo kwa kategoria za kileksika
10.2 Dhana ya Kategoria
Kwa mujibu wa Khamisi na Kiango (2002: 9) dhana ya kategoria ilitumiwa na wanasarufi mapokeo kwa namna tofauti na inavyotumiwa na wanasarufi mamboleo. Neno kategoria kama lilivyotumika katika sarufi mapokeo ya akina Aristotle limetokana na neno la Kigiriki na kutafsiriwa kama uarifu (predication). Wao walitumia dhana ya kategoria kuwa ni sifa bainifu, yaani zile sifa zinazoambatana au zinazoambikwa kwenye aina za maneno kama vile idadi, nafsi, kauli, ngeli, njeo, dhamira na uhusika.
Kategoria kwa mtazamo wa kisarufi mamboleo ni jamii, seti, kundi au makundi ya maneno yanayofanya kazi ya kufanana. Aidha, darajia yoyote ya vipashio inayotambuliwa katika uchambuzi wa lugha fulani huitwa kategoria.
Kwa sasa kategoria zipo katika viwango au darajia tatu: kiwango cha neno, kiwango cha kimuundo au kirai na kiwango cha kidhima. Kategoria hizi tatu zinajulikana kwa majina ya:
  • Kategoria za kileksika
  • Kategoria za virai
  • Kategoria za kidhima
10.2.1 Kategoria za Kileksika
Kategoria za kileksika ni kategoria za kiwango cha neno moja moja. Wataalamu mbalimbali wametofautiana katika idadi na istilahi za kategoria hizo. Kuna wanaotaja kategoria nne (tazama O’Grady, 1996: 182), saba (tazama Nkwera, 1978; Kapinga, 1983) na nane (tazama Kihore, 1996). Kategoria za kileksika zilizoainishwa mpaka sasa ni hizi zifuatazo:
Kategoria Mifano
(a) Nomino (N): Masanja, kijana, mtu, kitabu, vumbi, maziwa, utoto, ugonjwa n.k.
(b) Kitenzi (T): tembea, sema, totoa, ugua, kuwa n.k.
© Kivumishi (V): (-)dogo, -eusi, (-)zito, zuri n.k.
(d) Kihusishi (H): cha, katika, la, tena, hadi n.k.
(e) Kielezi (E): kijinga, vizuri, kabisa, sana, hasa, wima n.k.
(f) Kiwakilishi (W): mimi, wao n.k.
(g) Kiunganishi (U): na, lakini, ila, au, ama n.k.
(h) Kibainishi (B): yule, huyu, hawa n.k.
(i) Kiingizi/Kihisishi (K): abe!, naam!, hebu! n.k.
Kama tulivyobainisha kuhitilafiana kwa wataalamu juu ya ukategorishaji wa maneno, O’Grady (1996: 182) anaona kuwa kategoria za kileksika ni (a) mpaka (e) tu na kategoria zinazobaki ni kategoria zisizo za kileksika au ni kategoria za kidhima kwa kuwa maana za vipashio hivyo si rahisi kufasilika au kuelezeka. Aidha, katika kategoria za virai, ni kategoria za (a) mpaka (e) tu ndizo hutokea kama maneno makuu ya virai husika.
Kuna mkanganyiko unaoweza kujitokeza kuwa kuna maneno yanayoweza kuwa katika kategoria zaidi ya moja. Je, ni vigezo gani vinatumika ili kubaini kategoria za maneno? Vigezo vinavyotumika kubaini kategoria za maneno ndizo hutumiwa pia kama ushahidi wa kuwapo kwa kategoria katika lugha.
10.3 Ushahidi wa Kuwapo kwa Kategoria za Kileksika
Ushahidi unaounga mkono kuwapo kwa kategoria za kileksika ni wa kifonolojia, kimofolojia, kisintaksia na kisemantiki.
10.3.1 Ushahidi wa kifonolojia
Katika ushahidi huu kigezo kinachotumiwa ni mkazo au shadda. Neno moja linakuwa katika kategoria tofauti kutokana na uwekaji wa mkazo. Tutazame mifano ifuatayo:
1) Wafanyakazi wote wamejenga baraBAra
2) Kazi zote zimefanyika baRAbara
3) We need to imPORT new technology
4) We need an IMport of new technology
Katika mifano hiyo hapo juu, neno la mwisho katika sentensi 1) ni nomino na katika sentensi 2) ni kielezi. Katika sentensi 3) neno la nne ni kitenzi na neno hilohilo katika sentensi 4) ni nomino. Maneno ni yaleyale lakini yamekuwa katika kategoria tofauti kutokana na uwekaji wa mkazo mahali tofauti. Kwa hiyo, mkazo unathibitisha kuwapo kwa kategoria za kileksika. Unathibitisha kuwa kuna kategoria mbili za neno moja. Hapa tunaona kuwa kanuni fulani za kifonolojia lazima zijue taarifa za kikategoria kabla ya kutumika. Kwa hiyo, tunahitimisha kwa kusema kwamba lile dai la O’Graddy (1996) la kwamba maneno yamegawanyika katika makundi mbalimbali lina ukweli ndani yake.
10.3.2 Ushahidi wa kimofolojia
Katika ushahidi huu kinachoangaliwa ni uambikatizi. Viambishi fulani vya kisarufi huweza kuambikwa kwenye maneno yaliyo katika kategoria fulani tu na haviwezi kuambikwa kwenye maneno ya kategoria tofauti.
Kwa mfano, O’Graddy (1996) anasema katika lugha ya Kiingereza kiambishi cha wingi –s huambikwa kwenye maneno ya kategoria ya nomino, kiambishi cha njeo iliyopita –ed na cha hali ya kuendelea huambikwa kwenye vitenzi, na viambishi vya ukadirifu -er, -est huambikwa kwenye vivumishi. Vivyo hivyo, katika lugha ya Kiswahili, viambishi vya idadi na ngeli huambikwa katika nomino na vivumishi, viambishi vya njeo, kauli, na usababishi huambikwa katika vitenzi n.k.
10.3.3 Ushahidi wa kisintaksia
Hapa kigezo kinachotumika na ambacho yasemekana ndicho kinachoaminika zaidi (O’Grady, 1996: 184) ni kile cha mtawanyo. Tunaangalia nafasi ambayo maneno yanachukua katika tungo.
Kwa mfano, maneno ya kategoria ya nomino ndiyo yanayoweza kuchukua nafasi iliyo wazi katika utungo ufuatao:
__________ anaweza kuwa mnyama hatari sana.
Simba
Chui
Nyoka n.k.
10.3.4 Ushahidi wa kisemantiki
O’Grady (1996: 183) anasema kuwa kigezo kinachohusika hapa ni maana. Kwa maneno mengine, tunajua kuwa neno fulani liko katika kategoria fulani kutokana na linavyofasiliwa. Kwa mfano:
Nomino: maneno yanayotaja vitu
Vitenzi: maneno yanayotaja vitendo
Vivumishi: maneno ambayo hutaja sifa za nomino
Vielezi: maneno ambayo hueleza namna ambavyo tendo linafanyika
Vihusishi: maneno yanayohusisha
Vibainishi: maneno ambayo huweka vitu bayana
Tutakubaliana sote kuwa kigezo hiki hakiwezi kuwa cha kuaminika sana. Kunaweza kuwa na mapungufu mengi mtu akitumia fasili katika kuchanganua kategoria za maneno. Tuangalie mifano michache ya maneno kutoka lugha ya Kiingereza.
  • “Assasination” linaonyesha hali ya kutenda lakini ni nomino
  • “Fast food” katika neno ambatano hili, neno “fast” linadokeza namna ambavyo chakula kinavyotengenezwa (haraka haraka). Kwa jinsi hii neno fast linaonekana kuwa ni kielezi ilhali ni kivumishi.Aidha, kategoria ya vivumishi inaweza kuwa ngumu kuibainisha ikiwa peke yake kwa sababu Huweza kuwa kiwakilishi.
Kigezo kizuri kinachofaa kutumika katika ushahidi wa kisemantiki ni utata. Utata ndicho kigezo kizuri cha kuonyesha kuwa maneno yana kategoria mbili au zaidi. Utata ni kipengele kinachodhihirisha tafsiri zaidi ya moja. Yaani ni hali ya kipashio kimoja kuwa na maana zaidi ya moja. Upo utata wa kileksia na wa kimuundo. Katika utata wa kileksia, leksimu au neno moja linakuwa na maana zaidi ya moja. Kwa mfano:
Kaa 1. Mnyama wa majini, gegeleka (Nomino)
  1. Kijinga cha moto (Nomino)
  2. Keti (Kitenzi)
Panda 1. Tia mbegu ardhini (Kitenzi)
  1. Jamiiana (Kitenzi)
  2. Kwea (Kitenzi)
  3. Njia iliyogawantika (Nomino)
Katika utata wa kimuundo, tafsiri zaidi ya moja zinaibuka kutokana na jinsi utungo ulivyotungwa. Kwa mfano:
Hali halali
N V: Hali ambayo si haramu; ile inayoturuhusu kufanya jambo fulani
T T: Hawezi kula wala kulala
10.4 Hitimisho
Kutokana na ushahidi wa kifonolojia, kimofolojia, kisintaksia na kisemantiki, ni dhahiri kuwa maneno hugawika katika makundi mbalimbali madogo zaidi kama ilivyodaiwa na O’Grady (1997).
Mwl Maeda
Reply


Forum Jump:


Users browsing this thread: 1 Guest(s)